WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY

Matter and light have properties of both waves and particles simultaneously. The results of quantum mechanics make it clear that waves exhibit particle-like properties and particles exhibit wave-like properties, depending on the specific experiment. Quantum physics is therefore able to make descriptions of matter and energy based on wave equations that relate to the probability of a particle existing in a certain spot at a certain time.

CALORIC THEORY

Calorie was the scientist who had given Caloric theory which stated that heat was transformed from one place to another in the form of weight minus fluid so he  focused on the material medium and gave way towards convection and conduction if there is no transfer of heat in the material

 medium then caloric is remain constant.This theory was rejected because he did not give the concept of friction in his theory which was the source of heat.Moreover,if heat energy is reached to the earth from the sun then it did not need any material medium to pass through...so he did not give the concept of radiation that's why this theory was rejected later on.

ELECTROSTATIC FORCE

When two surfaces rub each other then the stationary charges have got charged and then they would transform from one surface to another. The charges are evenly distributed from one place to another.This force is called electrostatic force.

Coulombs law

It states that the force of attraction is directly proportional to the product of two  charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

F= kq'q/r^s here, k is the constant of proportionality and its value can be found by the expression i.e k= 1/4pi€ 

Permitivity can be found in free space and in vacuum by using the relation.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction of light is bending of light away from the normal as it passes from one material to another.according to the law of refraction of light given by snells if light enters from one medium to another it is either refracted away from normal or towards normal,the incidence ,normal and refracted rays of  light all lie on the same medium.every object has its own refractive index which can be calculated by snell's relation mathematically as sin<i / sin<r  = n so refractive index can be defined as the ratio of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction.is it possible that reflection and refraction occurs simultaneously?yes certainly it happens when we object outside the fast moving train then reflection and refraction occurs simultaneously.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT

when a light hits the smooth surface it will be reflected in this way, the angle of incidence must be equal to the angle of reflection according to the law of reflection.however when it hits the curved surface it will bounce back to different direction.law of reflection also states that the incident,normal and reflected rays all lie on the same plane.incident rays are those which hits the smooth surface such as mirror and reflected rays are those which make the angle equal to the incident rays.there are two kinds of reflection of light i.e regular reflection and diffused reflection.regular reflection is the reflection of light from the smooth surface while irregular reflection is the reflection of light from the uneven surface.

DYNAMICS VS KINEMATICS

Mechanics

It is the branch of physics which deals with the motion of  an object.There are two kinds which are as under.

Kinematics

It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of motion without knowing the cause of motion.

Now what is motion? If a body changes its position with respect to sorrounding than the body is said to be in motion eg translational motion,vibrational motion and oscillatory motion.

Dynamics:

It is the branch of physics which deals with the cause of motion.It means we usually know about the reasons of motions.

SPECTRUM

Light is a form of energy and its velocity is 3.0*10^8 meter per second. It is in the form of photons and travel from one place to another in the form of corpuscles according to newton corpuscular theory of light.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Splitting or scattering of white light through prism into different colours are called dispersion of light.as we know that white light is the combination of different colours which are seven in numbers and these seven colours form further colours which may call primary, secondary and tertiary colours.

SPECTRUM

These seven colours form band which is called spectrum they are in VIBGYOR pattern where red light has highest frequency and violet light has lowest frequency range.
there are two kinds of spectrum i.e line spectrum and electromagnetic spectrum.

HEAT VS TEMPERATURE

Heat is a form of energy. It is the Transfer of thermal energy from place to another place.it is measured in joules, kilojoules ,mega joules, calories, kilocalories etc it can be measured with the help of an instrument which is called calorimeter.according to law of conservation of energy ,energy  is neither created nor destroyed but it can be transformed from one place to another.there are different modes of transfer of heat from one place to another such as conduction, convection and radiation. All these modes have  own properties.conduction is happened only in solids and it is the transfer of molecules from one hotter region to cooler region as molecules gain kinetic energy and it happens in thermal conductor.the rate of conduction is quicker in copper than iron and has useful and harmful effect on our daily life. The handle of utensils are made up of plastics because they are bad conductor of electricity and heat.radiation is fastest mode of  transfer of heat from one place to another without any physical medium. It happens due to electromagnetic waves.convection normally happens in the case of gases with the help of convection current as warm air get rises due to decrease in density the cool air takes the place of warm air due to increase in density.it also has some useful and harmful effects on our daily life eg sea breeze and land breeze, heater, ventilators etc whereas Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of an object is called temperature. It is measured in celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin. The instrument used for the measurement of temperature is thermometer which is of different kind such as liquid in glass thermometer,mercury thermometer and alcohol thermometer. The clinical thermometer is used at home for the measurement of body temperature the normal body temperature is 98 degree celsius and 32 degree Fahrenheit. If scale is divided into 100 equal parts such scale is called celsius whereas 212 equal parts are called Fahrenheit.one kelvin is 273 degree celsius.

TYPES OF ERRORS

Random errors:

Such type of errors are caused by the increase or decrease in temperature,humidity,pressure etc

And may cause of wrong observations.such type of errors may reduce due to availability of proper lab where external temperature or pressure are kept constant yet such errors never be removed forever.

Systematic errors:

Such errors are caused of inappropriate instruments in which zero error is present i.e positive zero error and negative zero error that effect on the  reading however such errors may be removed by adding or subtracting errors in the final reading. If the zero of the main scale of vernier calliper does not match with the zero of the vernier scale then there is zero error in the instrument.if it is ahead of it then positive zero error in other case negative zero error in it.

Personal errors: 

Such errors are caused by human negligence and through repetitive observation of the different readings several times over the same instrument.this error is also called human error in which chances of errors are expected due to inefficiency of human skills. Such errors are removed entirely through proper intension towards observations. Deliberate act of taking accurate reading may eliminate chances of such type of errors.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

All those quantities which govern laws of physics.

• base quantities
• derived quantities

Base Quantities

Those quantities which can not be defined in terms of other physical quantities are called base quantities.

                     

Derived Quantities 

Those quantities which can be defined in terms of other physical quantities are called derived quantities.